IntroductiontoAutonomousMobileRobots

Introduction to Autonomous Mobile Robots（ 麻省理工）Intelligent Robotics and Autonomous AgentsEdited by ronald c. ArkinA list of the books published in the Intelligent robotics and Autonomous Agents series canbe found at the back of the bookIntroduction to autonomous mobile robotssecond editionRoland siegwart, Illah R Nourbakhsh, and Davide ScaramuzzaThe mit PressCambridge, MassachusettsLondon, Englando 201 1 Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyOriginal edition C 2004All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechan-ical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisherFor information about special quantity discount, please email special sales(@mitpress. mit. eduThis book was set in Times Roman by the authors using Adobe FrameMaker 9.0Printed and bound in the united states of americaLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataSiegwart, rolandIntroduction to autonomous mobile robots. -2nd ed /Roland siegwart, IllahR Nourbakhsh, and Da-Ⅴ ide scaramuzzap cm-(Intelligent robotics and autonomous agents series)Includes bibliographical references and indexisBN 978-0-262-01535-6(hardcover: alk. paper)l Mobile robots. 2. Autonomous robots. I Nour-bakhsh Illah Reza. 1970-II Scaramuzza Davide Ill. TitleTJ211.415.S5420116298932-dc2220100280531098765432To Luzia and my children, Janina, Malin, and Y anik, who give me their support and freedom to grow every daySTo my parents, Susi and Yvo, who opened my eyes--RSTo Marti, Mitra, and Nikou, who are my love and my inspiration--IRNTo my parents, Fatemeh and Mahmoud, who let me disassemble and investigate everythingin our home-IRNTo my parents, Paola and Ermanno, who encouraged and supported my choices every dayand introduced me to robotics at the age of three- DsTo my sisters, Lisa and Silvia, for their love-DsSlides and exercises that go with this book are available athttp://www.mobilerobots.orgContentsAcknowledgmentsPreface1 ntroduction1.1 Introducti1. 2 An overview of the booklocomotion132.1 Introducti132.1.1 Key issues for locomotion162.2 Legged Mobile robots172. 2. 1 Leg configurations and stability182.2.2 Consideration of dynamics212.2. 3 Examples of legged robot locomotion252, 3 Wheeled Mobile robots352.3.1 Wheeled locomotion: The design spac2.3.2 Wheeled locomotion: Case studies35432.4 Aerial mobile robots502.4.1 Introduction502.4.2 Aircraft configurations522.4.3 State of the art in autonomouS VTOL522.5 Problems563 Mobile robot kinematics57573.2 Kinematic Models and Constraints583.2. 1 Representing robot position583.2.2 Forward kinematic models613. 2.3 Wheel kinematic constraints3. 2. 4 Robot kinematic constraints713.2.5 Examples: Robot kinematic models and constraints3.3 Mobile robot maneuverability3.3. 1 Degree of mobility773.3.2 Degree of steerability813.3.3 Robot maneuverabilit823.4 Mobile robot Workspace843.4.1 Degrees of freedom843.4.2 Holonomic robots853.4.3 Path and trajectory considerations873.5 Beyond Basic Kinematics903.6 Motion Control(Kinematic Control)913.6. 1 Open loop control (trajectory-following)3.6.2 Feedback control3.7 Problems4 Perception1014.1 Sensors for mobile robots1014.1.1 Sensor classification4.1.2 Characterizing sensor performance1034.1.3 Representing uncertainty4. 1. 4 Wheel/motor sensors1154.1.5 Heading sensors1164.1.6 Accelerometers1194.1.7 Inertial measurement unit (IMU)214. 1. 8 Ground beacons1224.1.9 Active ranging254.1.10 Motion/speed sensors1404.1.11 Vision sensors1424.2 Fundamentals of Computer Vision1424.2.1 Introduction1424.2.2 The digital camera1424.2.3 Image formation484.2.4 Omnidirectional cameras1594.2.5 Structure from stereo1694.2.6 Structure from motion180Contents4.2. 7 Motion and optical flow1894.2.8 Color tracking4.3 Fundamentals of Image Processing1954.3.1 Image filtering1964.3.2 Edge detection1994.3.3 Computing image similarity2074.4 Feature extraction2084.5 Image Feature Extraction: Interest Point Detectors4.5.1 Introduction2124.5.2 Properties of the ideal feature detector2134.5.3 Corner detectors2154.5.4 Invariance to photometric and geometric changes2204.5.5 Blob detectors2274.6 Place Recognition4.6.1 Introduction2344.6.2 From bag of features to visual words2354.6.3 Efficient location recognition by using an inverted file2364.6.4 Geometric verification for robust place recognition2374.6.5 Applications2374.6.6 Other image representations for place recognition2384.7 Feature Extraction Based on Range Data ( Laser, Ultrasonic)2424.7.1 Line fitting4.7.2 Six line-extraction algorithms2484.7.3 Range histogram features2594.7.4 Extracting other geometric features2604.8 Problems2625 Mobile robot localization2655.1 Introdu5.2 The Challenge of Localization: Noise and Aliasing2665.2.1 Sensor noise2675.2.2 Sensor aliasing2685.2. 3 Effector noise5.2.4 An error model for odometric position estimation2705.3 To Localize or not to Localize: Localization- Based Navigation Versused solutions2755.4 Belief representation2785.4.1 Single-hypothesis belief2785.4.2 Multiple-hypothesis belief280